Indigenous Language Loss in the United States

Orion Gonzalez

High School Senior

January 2024

“To not know one’s language is to be left out” - Member of the Bad River Band of Chippewa. Language is a power that simultaneously connects and divides groups, it is the ultimate bridge and wall. During the colonization period of North American history, many indigenous languages were brought to extinction or severe endangerment. Thousands of native speakers perished to wars, famines, diseases, and massacres (Mufwene). Of the original 300 indigenous languages of North America, only around 175 remain, and it is estimated that without conservation efforts, by 2050 only around 20 will remain (Koyfman). Indigenous language loss is a coalescing issue, compiling more consequences as time moves on, largely because this cause is losing momentum in the modern world. This essay will cover and explore previous measures taken to protect the existence of Northern American Indigenous languages, detailing especially their effectiveness and worth of future application, before continuing onto my connection and history with this subject.

Tɨ’nia - What is the Problem?

T-ih-n-ee-ah, Story, Chemehuevi, 5 speakers (Chemehuevi, a Lexicon)

Indigenous language loss is an imminent problem that started in the late 15th century when the colonization of the Americas had begun. In the initial stages of colonization, a significant goal of the immigrants was to assimilate indigenous groups into Western culture. This is seen through Christian missionaries, Native American boarding schools, battles, and relocation. While many believe that these behaviors and tactics died with the Age of Exploration, in the early 1900s, it was still only recommended that forced assimilation should end (United States). The stigmas and practices of the colonization era have lived on into the modern world, and a large part of the reason why this issue still exists is due to the failures of the federal governments, under which these groups exist, to defend their cultural identities. Between the existence of Native American residential schools and several cases of acts and legislations falling through, North American federal governments have allowed the regression of indigenous culture loss to continue into the 21st century. In the mid-17th and 19th centuries, a common tactic used for the assimilation of indigenous groups was residential schools. Residential schools, or Native American Boarding Schools, were institutions created mostly by Christian missionaries with the goal of “civilizing” indigenous peoples. In the United States children were forced to cut their hair, renounce their mother tongues and names, and practice only the behaviors and religions enforced by the schools they attended. These schools were cruel and unsparing, as a common phrase associated with these institutes is, “Kill the Indian to save the man” (United States). It took until the late 20th century before indigenous groups fought not only for the right to educate their own children in their own manner, but also for their own cultural self-determination (Davis). More specifically in 1972 the Indian Education Act was passed, which along with implying an attempt to end forced integration, also showed an understanding of the unique needs of indigenous students, and the necessity of schools to meet those needs. However, according to a review on Native Language Revitalization done by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (United States), not only did this legislation meet backward action, but along with other legislations, it was failed to be upheld. Senator Daniel K. Inouye (ih-no-ay) was a leader in promoting federal government action to defend these groups. He drafted several legislations and amendments to support North American (including Hawaiian) native languages and education systems, however, he was repeatedly faced with rejection or failure by the government. Most notably, when he wrote the initial draft of the Native American Language Act, it was approved by the Senate and sent to the House. However, almost immediately, the English-Only movement killed any forward action with his draft. Somehow Inouye continued perservering, and finally, as an amendment to the Tribally Controlled Colleges and Universities Navajo Community College Act, the Native American Languages Act of 1990 was passed. This act was a federal policy allowing Native American languages to be used as the medium for instruction in schools, encouraging children to be educated and raised in their native language. Part of this act required a presidential administration to review and evaluate the effectiveness of the programs, however, Inouye noted that the Bush administration had failed to do so. He, alongside other supporters, made many testimonies to defend the bill, and Tommy C. Yazzie, Superintendent of the Leupp Schools (institutions run by the Navajo Nation, which are supported by this act) best said it, proclaiming the, “very essence of self-worth and dignity lies in our language” (United States).

With the federal government continuously falling through with legislation and creating such backward motion with these educational programs, it is almost undebatable that the most affected group would be the indigenous youth community. Not only is there a general distrust in educational institutions after centuries of the residential school system and their abuse, but now in modern days, when these children are disconnected from their culture, they lose an interest in reconnecting and building with it. Those who are affected are not limited only to the children - the youths are a vital part of language conservation, and their lack of presence in these communities is largely impacting the decline of these speeches. Their absence not only isolates them from older groups but removes cultural educational opportunities for future generations. For example, Chemehuevi (keh-meh-hway-vee) is a western dialect of Colorado River Numic specific to a very small group of people living along the banks of the Colorado River. The language currently has less than twenty speakers, and of that count, only three to five are truly fluent and native. This is an appalling number compared to the 500-800 speakers that existed pre-colonization (Scoil). PBS interviewed one of these native speakers, Johnny Hill Jr., and despite being fifty-three years old, he is the youngest of the group. Johnny spends the majority of his free time recording himself speaking Chemehuevi, documenting the sound for future generations (Harrison & Anderson). Unfortunately, this resource may never be used, because to reiterate, there is very little interest within the younger Chemehuevi groups. In Northern America, a very common motive is that people should only learn languages that are “advantageous” in the modern world, for example, English, Spanish, Mandarin, or any other language that belongs to world superpowers and successful economic markets. Younger people nowadays have very little interest in learning their native languages, as they believe it will not be beneficial to them in the future. However, this mindset may prove to be detrimental, as a study from Curtin University has found that, “Indigenous children whose parents promoted a strong sense of cultural identity in early childhood experienced better health and socio-emotional outcomes later in life. These findings suggest that an Indigenous child's strong cultural identity acts as a protective barrier to many of the challenges that Indigenous people often face in later life”. Multiple studies have found that not only being bilingual, but also speaking one’s native tongue, improves cognitive health, promotes confidence and positive self-conception, and contributes to overall strong mental health. In defending these languages, not only is cultural conservation enforced but also youth mental health.

Nakwetam - Solution

Nak-who-ay-tam, Answer, Ojibwe, 1000 speakers (The Ojibwe People’s Dictionary)

The Indingenous Language Act (ILA) of 1990 and Executive Order (EO) 13096 were two federal actions that passed in the late 20th century defending Native American students and the quality of their education. The ILA of 1990 was drafted by Senator Inouye, allowing and funding institutions that served indigenous students to use their respective native languages as an instructional medium (United States). EO 13096 was designed with the goals of keeping Native American and Alaska Native students in school longer, avoiding increased student dropout rates and future poverty in indigenous communities, creating safe school environments, and improving comprehension of multiple school subjects (Clinton, Executive Order). These two actions were revolutionary as they were an immediate response to reports on the needs of indigenous students, and aimed to ensure their upbringings were appropriate for their conditions. My proposed solution is to follow suit and draft new legislation continuing to support native youths. The new legislation should resemble the multiple versions of the ILAs and EO 13096, and cater directly to educational institutions that serve and understand the needs and languages of indigenous children. To implement this legislation and establish its effectiveness, the results of previous acts should be reviewed and analyzed. Results should not only consider the academic histories of institutes but also the public opinion and overall satisfaction. The most essential part of legislation dedicated to Native American groups is that it should truly provide what these groups desire. The next step would be to review previous acts and check for outdated terms–this does not necessarily mean terms that can be considered offensive or of a previous era–this means that all definitions will be considered and each will be evaluated for their effectiveness in connection with the goal. After reflection of the public desires and wording of previous statutes, a new bill can be drafted and submitted for legislative review. If the previous steps are executed correctly this new legislation can be passed and exist successfully. Another reason it is preferable to get public opinion on the legislation is that they will now more intently watch the processing of the bill. When a bill is serving a community, they will want to watch it succeed and pass and survive. This public expectation can create tacit pressure and more responsibility upon the federal government to ensure this legislation is well-founded and secured. If the act is received well by both federal and tribal governments, then it will continuously be supported and considered open for revision and amendment, creating a desire to revisit it and ensure it stays relevant in modern contexts. An ideal situation for this legislation would be if it were a quinquennial legislation, where it must be visited every five years and reevaluated. This ensures the bill would be revised often enough, but still with enough time in between each cycle to collect data and research.

The passing of this legislation would open up the new century with a fresh consideration for indigenous groups and their educational and linguistic systems. This bill would make amends and allow these indigenous groups to vocalize and implement their needs and expectations, crediting their autonomy as individual tribal governments. However, a concern with this plan could be a disagreement with that exact point. It is arguable that because this legislation concerns the cooperation of two governments, especially regarding finances and internal systems, tribal governments could become dependent on the federal government. If the funds and support given by the federal government are managed incorrectly, these institutions that were meant to be uplifted could be scraping by, hand to mouth. It is also worth considering that children are often the center of a community, the bridge between generations, and the concerns of their parents, the adults of the societies. If the children and their education system start requiring more, then the tribal governments will need to rely heavily on the federal government to give extra support, diminishing the autonomy that was meant to be reinforced with this bill. However, these counterarguments circle back to the previous proposition of making this bill a quinquennial legislation. By not only giving individual governments time before the passing of the bill but also five years in between cycles to budget themselves, these smaller governments should be able to recognize patterns within their budgeting and devise a plan to better approach the next cycle, assuming no substantially large amendments to the bill occur.

Nonetheless, until this large step can be taken, communities have the power to create smaller, more authentic solutions. Just as Johnny records himself speaking Chemehuevi, every tribe has its own method of preserving their language, such as publishing dictionaries, allowing linguists to research their dialect, and creating small after-school programs teaching the basics. Each of these tribes and communities should be supported as they carry on because, in the current world, there is no power as efficient and effective as awareness. The exponential use of social media has not only made the public more conscious of socio-political struggles within marginalized groups but has also greatly increased public support. It’s not uncommon to see fundraisers or amalgamations of voices supporting these often unheard-of causes. For example, recently on the prominent social media platform TikTok, creators have been making games or filters to raise funds to donate to a cause. These free-to-use filters only require users to film a video to show their support and raise funds, making it incredibly accessible and convenient for people to give aid when they otherwise couldn’t. Unfortunately, social media moves quickly, and there is no guarantee that this cause of language preservation will hold the spotlight for any amount of time, which is why a more easily enforceable and defensible solution–such as legislation–would be the ideal solution in saving endangered languages.

Kusitekwarʉ - Personal Connection

Koo-sit-eh-qwa-ruh, to Whistle for Someone, Comanche, 50 speakers (ILDA)

Language has always been a subject very dear to me. Between advanced English courses, Spanish since elementary school, enrollment in dozens of online courses, and now acting as a peer tutor and teacher’s assistant in Latin, I have taken every opportunity to be as immersed in this subject as possible. And I believe that my fascination with language and desire to conserve it stems from my background. I am a second-generation American, the eldest child of two immigrants from two different countries, and somehow in one generation, my parent’s culture has been lost from our lineage. As mentioned before, a common concept is to only learn and embrace what is “advantageous” in the modern world. At a young age, it was decided for me that neither of my parents' languages were beneficial to know, that concepts of society and time-old mythology would not aid me in the United States, nothing of their backgrounds would let me graduate any sooner, be paid anymore. And in a sense they were right, passing on their cultures to me would provide no notable benefits, I’ve never once found their cultures a vital need. But there is a grief that comes with this loss, just like any other. How can I explain I knew Spanish as a kid, but forgot it by 5th grade? Or that I barely know anything about Indonesia, despite visiting for months every other year? It is suffocating to be surrounded by something you should own, but will never possess. To know that something runs through your blood, but you'll still never be able to call it yours. This grief is so different, and complex, and one I would never wish onto another person.

Language loss is a monster that evolves in many different ways, claiming so many different people. In my case, my mother’s language has evolved so much in just the past 2 decades that no documented resource could ever teach me to speak it in a way she’d understand. Unless I am taught by her or another person of her background, her language will be completely lost to future generations of our family. Languages change over time, they are killed, diluted, or engulfed by others, it is a problem that affects so many more people than we are willing to recognize. And I’ve come to grasp that, it's not the end of the world, transformation is a normal process, one so slow that few people will feel the disturbance. But it can present as an earthquake for others, some will lose it as abruptly as I did, and I want to ensure that those who are affected in that manner stay as minimal as possible. I want these people to connect with older and future generations, I want them to own every possible part of themselves. I want them to be heard, exactly as they speak.

Because of my extremely personal subject, my research added new levels to my perception of myself and those around me. I feel that I could interpret my research in a way that others cannot, and that proved to be both beneficial and detrimental. I had extensive practice in learning how to put my feelings aside and understand sources for what they were, even when they didn’t necessarily align with what I wanted to hear. I read why certain languages had to die, why some people had to let go, and despite being some of the most heartbreaking reading of my life, I understood for the first time. I had time to consider whether or not my solution would truly help, I thought about all the ways it could go wrong, how it could even do the opposite of what I intended it to do. But I think despite all that, my research granted me confidence and empathy. My stance never changed, but my perception and depth of knowledge were greatly increased, and now I’ve never been more sure of myself and my support in this movement.

Ipar - Conclusion

Ih-pah-r, End, Mojave, 200 Speakers (Munro, et al)

Language is the root of the human experience, and yet it’s facing unprecedented challenges, declining at breakneck speeds. According to National Geographic, a language dies every 14 days. Modern influences such as the federal government and population youths play a fundamental role in the conservation of these languages, and it is critical that they are aware of their situation and role. Language is an experience shared by all–conveyed in countless mediums such as speech, and writing, and prayer, and song, and any possible way one could express oneself–but also somehow, it’s something deeply personal, a reflection of one’s perception of the world. Ludwig Wittgenstein articulates this sense, saying, “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world”.

Works Cited

Executive Office of the President William Clinton. Executive Order 13096 : American Indian and Alaska Native Education. 06 August 1998. Federal Register, vol. 64, no. 109

Harrison, David, and Gregory Anderson. “The Linguists.” PBS, Public Broadcasting Service, www.pbs.org/thelinguists/The-Speakers/#:~:text=Close-,Chemehuevi,Indian%20Reservation%20in%20western%20Arizona. Accessed 12 Nov. 2023.

Jordan, John-Erik. “The 5 Best Inspirational Language Quotes.” Babbel Magazine, Babbel, 10 May 2022, www.babbel.com/en/magazine/language-quotes-01.

Koyfman, Steph. “What Was, and What Is: Native American Languages in the United States.” Babbel Magazine, Babbel, 8 June 2023, www.babbel.com/en/magazine/native-american-languages-in-the-us#:~:text=According%20to%20the%20Indigenous%20Language,20%20still%20spoken%20in%202050.

“Kusitekwarʉ .” ILDA Comanche Language and Cultural Preservation Committee.

Mufwene, Salikoko S. “Colonization, globalization, and the Future of Languages in the Twenty-First Century”. University of Chicago, edited by Michel DeGraff, Claude HagPge, and Alison Irvine, UNESCO, 2001, http://mufwene.uchicago.edu/mufw_colonization.html#_ftn1.

Munro, Pamela, et al. “Ipar.” A Mojave Dictionary.

“Nakwetam.” The Ojibwe People’s Dictionary, Edited by Nora Livesay.

Press, Maragret. “A Chemehuevi Language Archive.” University of California Los Angeles, University of California, 1978.

Press, Maragret. Chemehuevi, A Grammar and Lexicon. Vol. 92, University of California, 1978.

Rymer, Russ. “Vanishing Voices.” Magazine, National Geographic, 3 May 2021, www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/article/vanishing-languages#:~:text=One%20language%20dies%20every%2014,English%2C%20Mandarin%2C%20or%20Spanish.

Scoil. “Chemehuevi.” California Language Archive, cla.berkeley.edu/languages/chemehuevi.html.

United States. Bureau of Indian Affairs. Native Language Revitalization. 2023

U.S. Department of Education, editor. “The Final Report of the White House Conference on Indian Education.”

X, Science. “Study Finds Indigenous Culture Boosts Children’s Outcomes.” Phys.Org, Phys.org, 25 Nov. 2019, phys.org/news/2019-11-indigenous-culture-boosts-children-outcomes.html.